2 - ELECTRICITY

Safe plugs 

• Right coloured wire connected to each pin 
• Wires screwed in 
• No bare wires 
• Cable grip fastened over outer layer - holds all wires in place 
• Metal parts = copper or brass (very good conductors) 
• Case/cable grip/cable insulation = rubber or plastic (good insulators, flexible) 

Earthed/insulated - 

• Live wire - alternates between high +ve and -ve voltage (about 230V) 
• Neutral wire - 0V 
• Electricity flows through live wire and out neutral wire (normally) 
• Earth wire and fuse/circuit breaker - safety, work together 

1. Fault in live wire 
2. Touches metal case of an appliance - case is earthed 
3. Flows through case and down earth wire (not someones hand etc.) 
4. Surge in current melts fuse - cuts off live supply 
5. Isolates whole appliance - can't get electric shock from case 
6. No risk of fire - no heating from effect of even larger current 

Circuit breakers - 

• Circuit breakers - electrical safety device, protect circuit from damage if too much current flows 
• Detect surge in current - break circuit by opening a switch 
• Can be reset easily (unlike fuses - need to be replaced) 
• Faster then fuse - break current as soon as there is a current surge, don't wait to be melted (safer) 
• Work for even small current changes 
• eg: RCCB (residual current circuit breaker)

Safety precautions with plugs - 

• Check plug isn't damaged - live parts could be exposed 
• Check cable isn't frayed - live parts of wires could be exposed 
• Check cables aren't too long for appliance - trip hazard 
• Check there's no water nearby - good conductor 
• Don't put metal in plug socket - conductors

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS 

Active transport 

• The movement of particles against the concentration gradient (from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration) using energy released during respiration

eg: 

1. Higher concentration of nutrients in blood, lower concentration in gut 
2. Active transport - against diffusion/osmosis - against concentration gradient
3. Allows nutrients to be taken into blood 
4. Needs energy from respiration 

Things that affect movement of substances - 

1. Surface to area volume ratio -(larger surface area to smaller volume ratio = substances move in/out faster) 
2. Temperature -(warmer = more energy, move faster substances move in/out faster) 
3. Concentration gradient -(big difference in concentration = substance move faster) - doesn't affect active transport

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Osmosis 

• The net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration
• Partially permeable membrane - small holes in it (only small molecules - eg: water can get through), eg: cell membrane 
• Water molecules pass both ways during osmosis (move randomly) 
• Steady net flow of water into region with fewer water molecules 
• Other solution gets more dilute 

Osmosis in cells - 

• Water moves in and out of cells by osmosis 
• Tissue fluid (water, with oxygen, glucose etc. dissolved in it) surrounds cells in body. Squeezed out of blood capillaries to supply cells 
• Tissue fluid has different concentration to fluid inside cell - water will move into/out of cell by osmosis (to/from tissue fluid) 

Turgid cells - 

• Turgid - when the cells in a plant are all hydrated (plump and swollen) 
• Hydrated plant - all cells draw in water by osmosis = plump and swollen (turgid)  
• Contents of cell push against cell wall - turgor pressure - helps support plant tissues 
• Dehydrated plant - cells lose water, lose turgor pressure - cells become flaccid (plant wilts) 
• Plant doesn't completely lose shape - inelastic cell well keeps it supported

Osmosis experiments - 

1. Living system - potato cylinders 

• Cut potato into equal cylinders, measure and record lengths
• Put cylinders in beakers with different sugar solutions (eg: pure water, different levels of concentrated sugar solution, very concentrated sugar solution) 
• Leave in beaker for at least half an hour 
• Take out cylinders - measure and record 
• Drawn in water (osmosis) = will be longer 
• Water drawn out = slightly smaller 

2. Non-living system - visking tubing 

• Tie wire around 1 end of visking tubing, put glass tube in other end, tie visking tubing around it 
• Pour sugar solution down glass tube into visking tubing 
• Measure where sugar solution comes up to in glass tube 
• Put in beaker of pure water 
• Leave overnight 
• Measure liquid in glass tube again 
• Water drawn in by osmosis - level in glass tube higher

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Diffusion

• The gradual movement of particles from a high concentration to a lower concentration 
• Happens in liquids and gases - particles free to move about 
• eg: perfume in air

Cell membranes -

• Hold cell together and control substances entering/exiting 
• Substances move in and out of cells by osmosis, diffusion and active transport 
• Only small molecules can dissolve through (eg: glucose, amino acids, water, oxygen) 
• Large molecules (eg: starch, proteins etc.) can't diffuse through cell membranes  

Diffusion experiment (non-living system) - 
- Phenolphthalein - pH indicator, pink in alkaline, colourless in acidic solution

1. Make agar jelly with phenolphthalein and dilute sodium hydroxide (jelly will be pink) 
2. Fill beaker with dilute hydrochloric acid 
3. Use a scalpel to cut out cubes of jelly - put them in the beaker (use different size cubes and a timer to investigate surface area and diffusion)
4. leave cubes - turn colourless (acid diffuses into agar jelly, neutralises sodium hydroxide)

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS 

Enzymes 

• Catalysts produced by living things - biological catalysts
• Catalyst - a substance which increases the speed of a reaction without being changed or used up in the process 
• Allows individual reactions to be sped up (without raising temperature and speeding up unwanted reactions too/damaging cells) - reduce the need for high body temperatures
• Only have enzymes to speed up useful chemical reactions (metabolic reactions) 
• All proteins (chains of amino acids) 

Specificity -

• Substrate - molecule changed in a reaction 
• An enzyme molecule has an active site (where a substrate then joins on) 
• Suited to one particular reaction - needs correct substrate to fit into active site 
• Lock and key model: 

Temperature - 

• Changing temperature changes rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction 
• Higher temperature increases reaction rate at first (more heat - particles have more energy, higher collision rate) 
• Lower temperatures slow reaction down - lower collision rate 
• Denaturing - If the enzyme gets too hot, some of the bonds break and the shape of the active site changes (substrate doesn't fit anymore). Reaction eventually stops once all enzymes are denatured. It's irreversible. 
• Optimum temperature - reaction is at its fastest just before it gets too hot and denatured. (eg: most important enzymes in humans have an optimum temperature of 37 degrees) 

Effect of temperature on enzyme activity - 

How fast a product appears: 
-Catalase catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen 

• Collect oxygen given off - how much in a set time? 
• Use a water bath - how does temperature affect amount of product produced/activity level of catalase? 
• Control any variables (eg: enzyme concentration, pH, volume of solution etc.) 

How fast a substrate disappears: 
-Amylase catalyses breakdown of starch to maltose 

• Use iodine to test for starch (iodine solution turns from brown/orange to blue/black) 
• Time how long it takes for starch to disappear (sample starch solution regularly) - compare 
• Use water bath - how does temperature affect activity of amylase? 
• Control all variables

pH - 

• Affects enzymes 
• Too high/low - interferes with bonds in enzyme, can cause it to become denatured 
• Optimum pH - (generally pH7), pH at which the rate of reaction is the fastest 
• eg: pepsin (breaks down proteins in stomach), optimum pH = pH 2

AOS 1 

Mozart - Number 40 

Compared to baroque era - 

• Orchestra expanded a lot 
• Clarinets invented 
• Horn invented 
• Better strings 

Symphony structure - 

4 movements, balanced 

1. Fast tempo                (Symphony no. 40) 

    Sonata form 

2. Slow tempo 

    Ternary 

    Theme and variations 

3. Minuet and trio 

4. Fast tempo 

    Rondo 

    Sonata/variation 

Sonata form structure - 

1. Exposition (b1-100)

• Split into 2 subjects (usually in different keys) 
• Introduces themes 

Subject 1: 

• B1-20 
• Bridge passage b20-44 (modulates) 

Subject 2: 

• B44-72 
• Codetta b73-100 (based on subject 1, closes section) 

2. Development (b101 - 164) 

Develops themes/subjects (mainly subject 1) 

• Change instrumentation 
• Extend/augment 
• Modulate 
• Decorate 

3. Recapitulation (b164-299) 

Recaps exposition - 

• 2nd subject in tonic key 
• Bridge extended 
• Coda b260-299 (instead of codetta) 

Melody - 

Exposition  

Subject 1 - 

• B1-5 - repeat of 3 note motif, 6th on end - descending sequences finishes phrase 
• B5-9 - repeat of b1-5 down a tone 
• Heavy use of anacrusis (an upbeat) throughout section 1 - later developed 

Bridge passage - 

• Same 3 note motif 
• B30-33 - descending sequence in upper strings 

Subject 2 - 

• Pathetique (graceful) 
• More relaxed and major 
• Characteristic use of semitones 
• B58-61 - 1 bar sequence to extend further 
• B66 - new 6 bar idea - 'subject 2 part 2' 
•                                 - chromatic ascent, broken by rhythmic features 
•                                 - falling scalic pattern 
•                                 - developed later 

Codetta - 

• Subject 1 and developments 
• Passed between instruments 

Development 

• Based on first 3 notes of subject 1 with additions and alterations 
• B114 - countermelody in upper strings 
•          - staccato melody - stands out from legato theme 
• B139-164 - motif repeated, passed around woodwind and strings (dialogue effect) 

Recapitulation 

• B164-184 - subject 1 repeated  
• B184-227 - extended version of bridge, originally for modulation (exposition) 
•                  - recapitulation in same key, further develops melody - doesn't need to modulate in bridge 
• Splits between upper and lower strings - alternating passages 
• B191 - countermelody in lower parts 
• B198 - switches over 
• B211-227 - same as 28-43 but in tonic key 
• B227 - 2nd subject repeated in tonic 

Coda - 

• 3 note motif (subject 1) 
• Augmentation of theme in cellos 

Harmony - 

 

Exposition 

Subject 1 - 

• G minor 
• Diatonic 
• Perfect cadences (eg: b10-13) 
• Ends on chord V to lead into bridge 

Bridge - 

• Starts in Gm - no F#, suggests modulation to Bb (relative major) 
• B27 - perfect cadence, confirms modulation 
• Ends with dominant pedal - prepares for subject 2 

Subject 2 - 

• Bb major 
• More chromaticism 
• Traditional chord progression (1c - V7 - 1) b64-66

Codetta - 

• Bb major 
• B100 - dominant 7th chord in Gm - acts as pivot to link to development 

Development

• Lots of modulation 
• Gm + added chromatic chords -> Em 
• Mores through keys rapidly (inverted circle of fifths) - Em-Am-Dm-Gm-C-F-Bb (traditional feature of development sections) 
• B134 - dominant pedal 
• B139-164 - dominant pedals in different keys  

Recapitulation 

• Gm 
• B185 - Brief modulation to Eb major 
• B198 - Brief modulation to Fm 
• B211 - Back to Gm tonic 
• B221 - dominant pedal, signals return of subject 2

Coda - 

• Gm 
• Allows piece to end in tonic key 

Rhythm - 

• Main rhythm motif taken from 3 note motif in subject 1 (quaver, quaver crotchet) 
• First quaver usually an upbeat 
• Subject 1 - driving quavers in accompanying parts (pulse)
• Subject 2 - rubato, pathetique (graceful) 
• Clear sense of pulse throughout - very little use of syncopation 
• Occasional rhythmic contrasts (eg: b66 - pushed rhythm - extension of anacrusis) 
• B68 - dotted rhythm break 

Texture/instrumentation - 

• Standard orchestra (without trumpets and timpani) 
• Divisi strings in score - fuller texture (more dense) 
• String dominated 
• Woodwind - provides accents in most prominent areas 
• Doubling of parts, mainly in woodwind and strings - draws attention (eg: b28 - bassoon and lower strings) 
• Doubling in octaves - stronger, stands out of texture (eg: b14-16 - woodwind) 
• Texture surges towards end of section (eg: b132 - sustained notes in middle of texture) 
• B96-97 - homophonic 

RELIGION AND LIFE 

3 - MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY

Key words - 
Adultery - a sexual act between a married person and someone other than their marriage partner 
Promiscuity - sex with a number of partners without commitment 
Homosexuality - sexual attraction to the same sex 
Pre-marital sex - sex before marriage 
Contraception - intentionally preventing pregnancy from occurring 
Procreation - making a new life 
Faithfulness - staying with your marriage partner and having sex only with them 
Civil partnership - legal ceremony giving a homosexual couple the same legal rights and a heterosexual married couple 
Nuclear family - mother, father and children living as a unit 
Re-constituted family - where 2 sets of children (step-brothers/sisters) become one family when their divorced parents marry eachother 
Re-marriage - marrying again after being divorced from a previous marriage 
Cohabitation - living together without being married 

RELIGION AND LIFE 

2 - MATTERS OF LIFE AND DEATH 

Key words - 
Abortion - remove of a foetus from the womb before it can survive 
Assisted suicide - providing a seriously ill person with the means to commit suicide (e.g: Dignitas in Switzerland) 
Euthanasia - painless killing of someone dying from a painful disease (e.g: active - doctor giving patient an overdose of muscle relaxants, passive - turning off life support machine/not carrying out life-saving operation) 
Non-voluntary euthanasia - ending someones life painlessly when they are unable to ask/agree to it but there is good reason for thinking they would want to do so 
Voluntary euthanasia - ending life painlessly when someone in great pain asks for death 
Immortality of the soul - idea that the soul lives on after the death of the body 
Near-death experience - when someone about to die has an out of body experience 
Paranormal - unexplained things that are thought to have spiritual causes
Quality of life - idea that life must have some benefits for it to be worth living 
Sanctity of life - belief that life is holy and belongs to God 
Reincarnation - belief that souls are reborn into a new body after death 
Resurrection - belief that (after death) the body stays in the grave until the end of the world when it is raised 

RELIGION AND LIFE 

1 - BELIEVING IN GOD 

Key words - 

Agnosticism - unsure whether God exists 
Atheism - believing God doesn't exist 
Conversion - when your life is changed by giving yourself to God 
Free will - idea that human beings are free to make their own choices 
Miracle - something that seems to break a law of science (believe only God could have done it) 
Moral evil - actions done by humans which cause suffering 
Natural evil - things that cause suffering but aren't related to humans 
Numinous - feeling of the presence of something greater than you 
Omni-benevolent - belief that God is all-good
Omnipotent - belief that God is all-powerful 
Omniscient - belief that God knows everything that has happened/going to happen (al-knowing) 
Prayer - an attempt to contact God (usually words) 

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

The Kingdoms - 


Plants - 

• Multicellular 
• Have chloroplasts - they photosynthesise 
• Cells have cell walls (made of cellulose) 
• Store carbohydrates as sucrose or starch 
• eg: cereals (maize etc.), herbaceous legumes (peas, beans etc.)

Animals - 

• Multicellular 
• No chloroplasts 
• No cell walls 
• Most have a form of nervous coordination (respond quickly to changes in environment) 
• Usually can move around 
• Often store carbohydrates as glycogen 
• eg: mammals (humans etc.), insects (houseflies, mosquitos etc.)

Fungi - 

• Some are single-celled, other have body called a mycelium (made up of hyphae - thread-like structures, contain lots of nuclei) 
• Can't photosynthesise 
• Cells have cell walls (made of chitin) 
• Most feed by saprotrophic nutrition (secrete extracellular enzymes - dissolve the food - absorb nutrients) 
• Store carbohydrates as glycogen 
• eg: yeast (single-celled fungus), nucor (multicellular, mycelium and hyphae) 

Protoctists - 

• Single-celled 
• Microscopic 
• Some have chloroplasts (
• Some are similar to plant cells, others more like animal cells 
• eg: chlorella (plant cell-like), amoeba (animal cell-like, live in pond water) 

Bacteria (prokaryotes) - 

• Single-celled 
• Microscopic 
• No nucleus 
• Have a circular chromosome of DNA 
• Some photosynthesise
• Most feed off other organisms 
• eg: lactobacillus bulgaricus (used to make milk go sour to make yoghurt, rod shaped), pneumococcus (spherical shape) 

Viruses - 

• Particles, not cells 
• Smaller than bacteria
• Only reproduce inside living cells (parasitic) 
• Infect all types of living organisms 
• Different shapes and sizes 
• No cellular structure - protein coat around some genetic material (DNA or RNA) 
• eg: influenza virus, tobacco mosaic virus (makes the leaves of tobacco plants stop producing chloroplasts - discoloured), HIV 

Pathogens - cause disease 
eg:

• Protoctist - Plasmodium, causes malaria 
• Bacterium - Pneumococcus, cause pneumonia 
• Viruses - Influenze virus, causes flu 
• Viruses - HIV, causes AIDS 

1 - STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Levels of organisation - 

1. Similar cells -> tissues 
2. Tissues -> organs 
3. Organs -> organ systems 

1. Similar cells are organised into tissues 

• Tissue - group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function 
• eg: plants - xylem tissue (transporting water and mineral salts) and phloem tissue (transporting sucrose and amino acids) 
• Can contain more than one cell type 

2. Tissues are organised into organs 

• Organ - group of different tissues that work together to perform a function 
• eg: lungs in mammals, leaves (both made up of different tissue types) 

3. Organs make up organ systems 

• Each system does different job 
• eg: digestive system - stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver 

1 - FORCES AND MOTION 

Stopping distances - 

Stopping distance - time between first spotting a hazard and the car coming to a complete stop 

Thinking distance - time between driving noticing hazard and applying brakes 

Affected by: 

• How fast you're going 
• How aware the driver is - eg: tiredness, drugs, alcohol, age, inexperience 

Braking distance - distance the car travels during deceleration while brakes are being applied 

Affected by: 

• How fast you're going 
• Mass of vehicle (the larger the mass, the longer it takes to stop)
• Quality of brakes 
• Grip - road surface, weather conditions, tyres 

1 - PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

States of matter - 

Solids - 

• strong forces of attraction between particles - close together 
• fixed positions 
• lattice arrangement 
• particles don't move - solids keep definite shape and volume 
• particles vibrate about their positions 
• hotter = more vibration = slight expansion 

Liquids - 

• weak force of attraction between particles 
• randomly arranged 
• free to move past each other 
• generally stay closely together 
• definite volume but not definite shape 
• flow to fill bottom of a container 
• constantly moving with random motion 
• hotter = move faster = slight expansion 

Gases - 

• very weak force of attraction between particles 
• free to move 
• far apart 
• particles travel in straight lines (bounce off objects/each other) 
• no definite shape or volume 
• fill any container 
• move constantly with random motion 
• hotter = move faster = expand/increase pressure 

Changes of state - 

HEAT ENERGY SUPPLIED - 

Solid - Liquid - 

1. Solid heated, particles gain energy 

2. Particles vibrate more, weakens bonds 

3. Expands 

4. Particles gain enough energy to break free from positions 

MELTING 

5. Liquid

Liquid - Gas - 

1. Liquid heated, particles gain more energy 

2. Particles move faster, weakens and breaks bonds holding it together 

3. Particles gain enough energy to break bonds 

EVAPORATING 

4. Gas 

HEAT ENERGY GIVEN OUT - 

Opposite happens! 

Gas - liquid - 

CONDENSING 

Liquid - solid - 

FREEZING 

2 - SPACE

1. Science and technology 

• Space exploration - unmanned space probes/what are we learning from them?, value of manned space flights, are we alone in the universe?, space tourism 
• Climate change - causes, consequences, minimising personal environmental impact, global action to be takes 

2. Society and politics 

• Migration of people - motive for emigrants from UK, benefits/drawbacks of migration, immigration controls etc 
• Urban/rural - village life under threat?, housing needs, life in towns/cities - need improving?, transport problems 

3. Arts and media 

• Art and public space - public art, function, does modern architecture meet our needs? 
• Global media - foreign news and cultures, West's domination of media, poorer countries - access to media resources, control of globe media (politics etc) 

4. Business and industry 

• Use of land - industrial use of land, housing, protecting land against development, different kind of development, land ownership and access 
• Buying and selling - consumer society?, increasingly standardised consumer products, is the UK still a major producer of goods?, invisible exports 

5. Beliefs and values 

• Multiculturalism - definition, how/why should we celebrate our differences?, integration desirability, methods of integration 
• Green values - environment-friendly, 'green' politics, religions views, teaching green values 

1 - CONFLICT 

1. Science and technology 

• Human aggression - causes, how/why, sports, technology's influence 
• Controversy - scientific advance, concern, problems caused/solved, health and medicine, morality 

2. Society and politics

• Tensions in society - categorising people, factors that divide society, encouraging growth of communities 
• Politics and the public - roles of political parties, pressure groups, public interest in politics, democracy 

3. Arts and media 

• Challenge - challenging social norms, arts in education, changing minds/behaviour, elitism 
• Media bias - newspapers more than 'news'?, press opposing authority, roles of different newspapers, left/right wing etc. 

4. Business and industry 

• Market - benefits of competitive market, advertising, susceptibility to advertising, sport/entertainment over commercialised? 
• Small/big businesses - small/big business competition, mergers, take-overs, managers remote from workforces?, big business and public interest 

5. Beliefs and values 

• Individual and society - rights as citizens, duties/expectations, interests of society/interests of individual, privacy of public figures (media, personal lives etc) 
• Tolerance/intolerance - prejudice, roots of prejudice, challenging stereotypes, intolerance of minorities, tolerance of beliefs 

1 - FORCES AND MOTION 

The 3 laws of motion - 

1 - Balanced forces mean no change in velocity

• If the forces are balanced, on a non-moving object, it will just stay still 
• If the object is already moving, it will continue at the same velocity 

- a train going at a constant velocity has all the forces acting on it balanced - steady speed = no resultant force 

2 - A resultant force means acceleration 

• Unbalanced force = object accelerates in that direction 

- acceleration =starting, speeding up, stopping, slowing down, changing direction - on a force diagram the arrows will be unequal 
- the bigger the force, the greater the acceleration/deceleration 
- the bigger the mass, the smaller the acceleration 

Unbalanced force (resultant force) - 
Resultant force = mass x acceleration (F = ma)
Acceleration = resultant force/mass (a = F/m)


3 - Reaction forces 

•  If object A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts the exact opposite force on object 

- same sized forces in opposite directions 
- movement depends on mass etc. 
- eg: swimming 

1 - FORCES AND MOTION 

Motion experiment - 

1. Set up apparatus like picture (however, include a light gate at the start line, one at the base of the slope and one t the end of a long flat strip after) 
2. Mark start line 
3. Measure distance between each light gate 
4. Allow car to roll down from starting point (ensure light gates are linked to computer data software)
5. Repeat for average time taken for the car to reach each light gate 
6. Find average speed (average time taken between gates / distance between gates) 

Possible alterations - 

• Mass - put weights on car to see effect 
• Friction - place different materials on ramp (eg: carpet) 
• Acceleration (due to gravity) - move start line higher or lower, will affect average speed between gates
• Speed - change angle of ramp 
• Size/shape/weight of car - use different cars (eg: streamlined)

1 - FORCES AND MOTION 

Forces and friction - 

• Gravity/weight - straight downwards 
• Reaction force - from surface, usually straight upwards 
• Electrostatic force - between 2 charged objects (direction depends on type of charge, eg: repel, attract etc) 
• Thrust/push/pull - eg: due to engine or rocket speeding something up 
• Drag/air resistance/friction - slowing object down 
• Lift - eg: due to aeroplane wing 
• Tension - eg: in rope or cable

 Friction - 

• Opposes motion (unless in space)
• To stay at a a steady speed, there needs to be a driving force to counteract friction

1. Static friction - between solid surfaces that are gripping 
2. Sliding friction - between solid surfaces that are sliding past eachother (lubricant between surfaces eg: oil/grease) 
3. Resistance/drag - can be reduced by making object streamlined, lowers top speed of an object (eg: parachute)